negative effect of passive recreational activities

44 Fairlie, Robert W., and Jonathan Robinson. The effects of sedentary behavior and screen time are particularly meaningful, given that by the 2007 wave, the adolescents in our data spent over 2.5 hours each day performing these passive leisure activities. /ColorSpace /DeviceRGB For instance, we may find that children who have their time use and cognitive performance measured in December in the first wave and June in the second exhibit an increase in active behavior and a co-occurring growth in cognitive performance. We thank Sandra Hofferth, Annette Lareau, Elliott B. Weininger, the members of the Connected Learning Research Network, and participants from the Child/Youth/Adolescents 2017 Health, Bodies, and Wellbeing ASA paper session for their critiques on earlier drafts of this manuscript. /Subtype /Image Related research also highlights a growing SES disparity in adolescent obesity prevalence that is masked by a recent trend of overall stabilization, consistent with gaps in relevant time use (Frederick, Snellman, and Putnam 2014). /Height 42 >> Further, as a matter of course, we cannot produce estimates for non-compliers who, say, mostly stay inside regardless of weather conditions. That is, sunlight is a noticeably poorer predictor of behavior among children with college-educated mothers compared to their peers, and this results in higher standard errors (but cannot account for the lower point estimates). All remaining errors are ours alone. Buchmann, Claudia, and Thomas A. DiPrete. Liddle, 1975, Cole and Bayfield, 1993 laid the foundations for this research field Some of the data used in this analysis are derived from Restricted Data Files of the Panel Study of Income Dynamics, obtained under special contractual arrangements designed to protect the anonymity of the respondents. However, recreation stems from a basic human need for activities that are essential to the mental and physical well-being of the 9 0 obj ), particularly in children (Ludyga et al. Alexander, Karl L., Doris R. Entwisle, and Linda S. Olson. Not exercising. 2016). HT5T t^c=sSS3=#Ss=S3T48T$& *:JZjz ? 2015;19(11):1031-41. doi: 10.1080/13607863.2014.996734. /Name /im1 Whether this is more purely physiological in origin or a reflection of the different psychological effects certain behaviors have on development is an open question, and fertile ground for future research. FE-IV Results Stratified by Primary Caregivers Education. 1369 endobj Clifford, Angela, Linda Lang, Ruoling Chen, Kaarin J. Anstey, and Anthony Seaton. We link a database of more than three million county-day measures of sunlight compiled by the US government to corresponding time use diary and cognitive assessment records longitudinally collected in the first Child Development Supplement (CDS) module of the Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID). Others have also leveraged the random occurrence of weather shocks to explore electoral outcomes (Madestam et al. One reason could be a systematic difference in opportunity cost structures, such that some children are substituting active behavior for less productive time use. stream Note: Cluster-robust standard errors are in parentheses. Borghans, Lex, Bart H H Golsteyn, James Heckman, and John E. Humphries. He is also interested in mapping the genetic architecture of phenotypic plasticity, and characterizing social and genetic sorting as distinct processes. Chay, Kenneth Y., Jonathan Guryan, and Bhashkar Mazumder. Older Adults' Advance Aging and Life Satisfaction Levels: Effects of Lifestyles and Health Capabilities. Thus for certain subpopulations, narrowing time use differences among children may aid in helping shrink gaps in assessment and academic achievement more generally. Prakash, Ruchika Shaurya, Michelle W. Voss, Kirk I. Erickson, and Arthur F. Kramer. For instance, physical trampling will damage vegetation and increase compaction of soils. While it is only in its earliest stages, the new PSID CDS will be a powerful tool in the future for researchers who seek to understand how behavior affects assessment and achievement. Unauthorized use of these marks is strictly prohibited. Outdoor recreation in protected areas negatively impacts wildlife Researchers have also illustrated related links between seasonal warm-weather allergens and decreased performance on high-stakes exams (Bensnes 2016). /Name /im2 The differences in the effects of physical and outdoor activity are more difficult to speculate on because all children exhibit relatively low levels of either behavior. Physical activity lowers blood pressure , which is one of the major contributing factors to cardiovascular events. 2010; Zimmerman and Christakis 2005). Another possibility is that restrictions in sunlight depress cognitive performance through the channel of negative mood or depression, popularized in the psychological literature as Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD). Specifications that were not bounded by lag time restrictions produced substantively similar results, but with smaller coefficients and greater precision, consistent with the growth in sample size and reduced signal after including cases where testing substantially lags or precedes treatment. 2022 Aug 12;10:966989. doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2022.966989. Unfortunately, because of the practical difficulties of inferring causal relationships using observational data, much of what we suspect to be involved in altering developmental trajectory is ultimately based on intuition and theory rather than robust empirical evidence. Children experience systematic differences in their exposure to formal academic instruction due to the geographic variation in the minimum number of hours that states and other localities mandate students receive. Usually, these consist of interventions that try to capture the acute effects of exercise (e.g., studies estimating the immediate effects on cognitive performance of 30 minutes of moderate-intensity exercise) or more medium-run behavioral modification (e.g., engaging in physical activity for 20 minutes a day over two weeks, and comparing pre- and post-treatment cognitive assessment). ! The mere presence of people in forests can disturb wildlife, which may perceive humans as potential predators. The social and economic background of families influences not only the level of formalization but often whether activities are active or passive, and our findings are provisional evidence that these behaviors are significant in terms of not only weight gain or physical health but cognitive performance as well, implicating them in broader trends in childhood inequality in achievement. We also include the dependent variables in our imputation procedure, as suggested by Young and Johnson (2010). Class inequalities have primarily been driven by gains among high-SES daughters compared to poorer girls and boys of all backgrounds, highlighting an emerging and interrelated inequality based on sex (Bailey and Dynarski 2011). Lee, Jooa J., Francesca Gino, and Bradley R. Staats. HW[~:yjY4@}89Dl$%hgxnp,R/|gJdy2G^*a%`~1R"~GVw1)r[ y}u[q-brGqS?ZETT. Yet other research which specifically examines the impact of educational programming (e.g., Sesame Street) finds positive and significant effects, signaling the importance of content (Mares and Pan 2013). However, some drawbacks can include social isolation and self-deception as a result of errors made. << official website and that any information you provide is encrypted Thomas Laidley, Dalton Conley, The Effects of Active and Passive Leisure on Cognition in Children: Evidence from Exogenous Variation in Weather, Social Forces, Volume 97, Issue 1, September 2018, Pages 129156, https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/soy020. For total screen time, the effect size is a more modest reduction of about one-fifth of a standard deviation with each additional daily hour. Front Public Health. Discussion and conclusion Raw insolation values were calculated by the CDC on grid cells and aggregated up to the county level, and then quality-checked before being publicly released. 12 0 obj Another possibility is that the effects we find in FE-IV specifications reflect relationships among compliers in our natural experiment that are not common across the CDS sample (more on this later in the results). Int J Qual Stud Health Well-being. The second and third waves followed up on eligible minors in 2002 and 2007, respectively, with any child 18 or over transferring to the Transition to Adulthood (TA) supplement, which consists of a more limited array of data that do not include time diaries or cognitive assessments. Active recreation sites include swimming areas; playgrounds; tot lots; play fields; and tennis and other court game facilities. Previous reviews on the effect of recreational activities on nature which bear reference to freshwater systems exists . One conclusion is rather clear: in 2014, American children are still engaging in far more passive than active leisure, whatever their background. endstream 2013), criminal behavior (Jacob, Lefgren, and Moretti 2007), and civil conflict (Miguel, Satyanath, and Sergenti 2004), to name a few. Stock, James H., Jonathan H. Wright, and Motohiro Yogo. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the Establishing the real-world significance and construct validity of cognition as it is commonly measured in aptitude tests is less straightforward than it may seem. Differences patterned on race are significantly narrower than they were in the mid-twentieth century by any reasonable estimate, yet there is evidence that this convergence has stagnated since the 1990s (Neal 2006), and may be attributable to cohort-specific gains that manifested in the 1970s and 1980s (Chay, Guryan, and Mazumder 2009). We conclude by descriptively examining time use among a comparably aged subset of the new CDS cohort in 2014 to adolescents in our main data, offering suggestive evidence of recent trend lines in behavior among US children, and providing relevant contemporary context for our findings. The PubMed wordmark and PubMed logo are registered trademarks of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). Adobe d C This is why, as Heckman and colleagues point out, achievement tests are better predictors of future success than fluid IQ, as they are capturing these intangibles which help mediate the effects of ability on outcomes. If the recreation is performed for other people, such as a We Somewhat encouragingly, we did not see any dramatic overall changes from 2007 to 2014, particularly in screen time or sedentary behavior. endobj Outdoor recreational activities are increasing worldwide and occur at high frequency especially close to cities. MeSH Falbe, Jennifer, Bernard Rosner, Walter C. Willett, Kendrin R. Sonneville, Frank B. Hu, and Alison E. Field. This raises the possibility of a selection bias mechanism whereby higher-ability children spend more time sedentary or consuming media. Aside from cross-sectional correlates, which are suggestive of better overall health profiles and the long-run lifestyle differences they reflect, other work finds that even relatively modest short-term interventions in physical activity can manifest in changes in measured cognitive function. Still, children today seem to be exhibiting similarly low levels of both physical and outdoor activities as their peers did in 2007. "(($#$% '+++,.3332-3333333333 * Given the trivial negative effects Significant baseline differences among high- and low-SES toddlers have been found as early as 18 months (Fernald, Marchman, and Wiesleder 2013), and indeed may be large enough in magnitude to largely account for the lag in US educational assessment compared to similar industrialized countries (Merry 2013). 2014). A sedentary or inactive lifestyle. Standard OLS estimates (pooled across waves) do evince significant, negative relationships between sedentary behavior, television, total screen time, and math scores, but with noticeably smaller coefficients. Keywords: Bethesda, MD 20894, Web Policies These activities were then coded by PSID researchers, and in their raw form may be aggregated to obtain a detailed snapshot of how and where children spent their time. While some work does offer experimental evidence of the effects of select activities using randomized control trials (RCT)for example, Loprinzi and Kane (2015)it is difficult to infer how routinized behaviors affect outcomes of interest solely based on interventions among carefully targeted respondent populations. We begin by leveraging the longitudinal aspect of the data and employ an individual fixed-effects (FE) approach, which zeros out any time-invariant factors. BMC Public Health. We use weekday measures of time use, and necessarily exclude summer vacation as the CDS was administered only during the school year. Another consideration is the effect sizes of behavior on assessment we find among African Americans compared to whites, which could reflect differential vitamin D absorption because of the protective effects of melanin (Matsuoka et al. Quasi-experimental studies on the cognitive effects of computer use have found that effects are largely null (Fairlie and Robinson 2013), or negative but modest in magnitude (Vigdor, Ladd, and Martinez 2014). For instance, we might expect less sunlight during a storm spell to result in more sedentary time at home, and less time engaging in physical activity outdoors. /BitsPerComponent 8 While the etiology of comparative disadvantage is difficult to disentangle, significant differences in cognition before kindergarten and the tendency for gaps to widen during the summer months highlight the crucial importance of the home environment (Alexander, Entwisle, and Olson 2007; Condron 2009). The CDS also collected assessments of math and verbal ability using the Woodcock Johnson Revised (WJ-R) tests, which are well-established, age-standardized metrics of reasoning ability in children as young as three years old (see: Woodcock and Johnson [1989] for more detail). 2017 Mar 1;10(2):67-75. doi: 10.3928/19404921-20170224-01. WebLoneliness observed to be related to many factors such as depression, desolation, hopelessness, low level of self-esteem, low level of life satisfaction, adaptation difficulty, Verbal ability may thus be more sensitive to the additive cognitive gains children experience as the school year progresses, while math may be more sticky in comparison. k#/m,]K9>Bk#.ku}uVj6^C |5>_:+5q/` Kq! p>KGFk}g $o^:G\f^;.^' {N?Fu6e:}o^:G\f^;.^' {N?]tr"{/+RI%Ve?/^u5`!,Ve?/^u5`!,Ve?/^u5`!,^W? WebAim: Many older adults face limitations to participating in active leisure activities as a result of their physical constraints from aging. ! Effect sizes are at least twice as large for girls compared to boys, with all activities exhibiting significant relationships with math assessment except for video games (table 3). /Type /XObject Here, we couple individual fixed effects and instrumental variable approaches in trying to determine whether specific forms of leisure contribute to gains in test performance over time. 2020 Jun 19;17(12):4402. doi: 10.3390/ijerph17124402. endstream Brown, Bruno P. Nunes, Inacio C M Silva, and Pedro C. Hillal. Our stratified results indicate that children from less educated mothers and girls seem to be most sensitive to the effects of active and passive forms of leisure. Gaps in more passive leisure behaviors patterned on race, sex, and particularly SES as captured by mothers education persist, but seem to have attenuated somewhat. Keller, Matthew C., Barbara L. Frederickson, Oscar Ybarra, Stphane Ct, Kareem Johnson, Joe Mikels, Anne Conway, and Tor Wager. Fernndez-Mayoralas G, Rojo-Prez F, Martnez-Martn P, Prieto-Flores ME, Rodrguez-Blzquez C, Martn-Garca S, Rojo-Abun JM, Forjaz MJ; Spanish Research Group on Quality of Life and Ageing. Fitzpatrick, Maria D., David Grissmer, and Sarah Hastedt. A total of 460 participants aged 60-95 years were randomly selected from 21 sites in the USA. We use this proxy for weather to instrument for the variation in physical, outdoor, sedentary, and screen-time behaviors based on CDS time diaries. These differences in measured cognition reverberate through the life course, and have been implicated in reduced intergenerational mobility and flatter wage trajectories among African Americans, controlling for other significant factors in achievement like grades and attitudinal traits (Bhattacharya and Mazumder 2011; Hall and Farkas 2011). Data missingness is not a trivial concern using PSID-CDS data; in the inaugural 1997 wave, about 20 percent of families otherwise eligible and contributing to the study did not complete time diaries. For instance, girls are over three times more sensitive to the effects of screen time than boys, yet the latter consume 2540 percent more depending on the wave. Influence of Leisure Competence and Level of Leisure Activity on Life Satisfaction in Low-Income Older Adults in Rural South Korea. In table 1, we present our core results on the effects of physical, outdoor, and sedentary activity on math scores. Effects of Leisure Participation on Life Satisfaction in Older Korean Adults: A Panel Analysis. In their small-scale experimental study, Keller et al. We found no noticeable difference in results by excising homework time and confining the measure to the length of the school day alone. Other work finds that temperatures above 70F tend to induce negative emotions, while even particularly cold weather (<20F) is associated with higher subjective well-being (Noelke et al. 2007 Oct 22;7:299. doi: 10.1186/1471-2458-7-299. Regular physical activity exerts beneficial effects on onset and progression of a number chronic diseases, well-being, and has positive effect to communities and societies. Interestingly, many of the same systematic differences between classes that characterize enrollment in music lessons or museum attendance are mirrored in sedentary activity and media consumption. For instance, some have provocatively argued that the primary driver of labor market success and attendant social reproduction is not cognition or skills per se but the attitudes and personality traits that are inculcated in the higher social strata (Bowles and Gintis 2002). F ) sx3s\y; Jacob, Brian, Lars Lefgren, and Enrico Moretti. These experimental results illustrate that the benefits of exercise may partly reflect a direct dose-response relationship that can manifest in the short or medium term, rather than simply reflecting long-term differences in well-being. While we aggregated many individual activities into cohesive categories in the earlier stages of our analyses, we ultimately include only those that exhibit a robust first-stage association with our weather measures in the full specifications. By exploiting the plausibly exogenous variation in weather on the day of measured activity, we can deliver estimates of how more active and passive forms of leisurewhich are particularly sensitive to weather and sunlightcontribute to shaping cognitive assessment over time. Vigdor, Jacob L., Helen F. Ladd, and Erika Martinez. /Filter /FlateDecode Future work in the social sciences could integrate these differences in active and passive leisure into theoretical models that seek to explain why life chances so noticeably diverge among children. Because other imputed stratified estimates (see tables S4S5 in the online appendix) deliver similar or more conservative estimates compared to those using listwise deletion, it is possible that our main race-stratified results are downwardly biased due to nonresponse. Conceptually, we intuit that short- and medium-run changes in sunlight result in consequent reductions or increases in specific forms of leisure activity over the same time period, which then may have short- and medium-run cognitive effects. Several longitudinal studies have found early exposure to media and television in both infants and toddlers to predict worse cognitive outcomes later (Tomopoulos et al. We find robustly positive effects of physical activity and outdoor activity on math scores, with the opposite true for sedentary behavior and screen time. Mielke, Gregore I., Wendy J. Our research suffers from various limitations that render our results provisional. Our stratified results based on imputed data, however, deliver larger coefficients and smaller p values for the black subsample, and effect sizes are about 3060 percent larger compared to whites in those specifications depending on the behavior (online appendix table S6). 2016). Intuitively, one would suspect that children who have unstructured free time would be more sensitive to weather conditions compared to those taking piano or violin lessons, for example. Boys may thus reach a saturation point after which each additional unit of electronic media consumption no longer appreciably affects performance. Leisure time activity is often positioned as a key factor in child development, yet we know relatively little about the causal significance of various specific activities or the magnitude of their effects. We may see differences among our subsamples because, for example, higher-SES kids are engaging in relatively productive or cognitively active sedentary behaviors like conversing with their siblings as opposed to sitting alone watching television. Forests are a natural environment often used for such activities as jogging, hiking, dog walking, mountain biking, or horse riding. Scientists from the Southeast Fisheries Science Center have deployed passive acoustic recorders to monitor endangered North Atlantic right whales in the Southeast for the 2023 calving season. Tom Laidley is a PhD candidate in sociology at New York University. 2014 Jul 23;9:24616. doi: 10.3402/qhw.v9.24616. The site is secure. The results showed that participation in passive leisure activities, such reading, talking on the telephone and watching TV/listening to the radio, is more frequent among older adults (P = 0.000). PMC Behav Sci (Basel). Construction of ancillary facilities, such as boardwalks and viewing platforms, can also cause The mixed leisure type, in which active, passive, and social leisure activities are mixed, showed a decrease of12.7% from 37.5% before Corona 19 to 32.8% after Corona 19, and the percentage difference was -4.8%p. Lillard, Angeline S., and Jennifer Peterson. In 1997, the CDS component collected additional data on children (newborns to 12-year-olds) and their parents or guardians. Conclusions: /Width 29 "(($#$% '+++,.3332-3333333333 * The regression coefficient found that club/organization or volunteering (P = 0.008), homemaking/maintenance (P = 0.017) and traveling (P = 0.017) for active leisure activities were statistically significant predictors of Life Satisfaction Index - Z for older adults. endobj Int J Environ Res Public Health. Recent research, however, suggests that vitamin D deficiency among blacks may be an artifact of conventional testing methods, and that levels of bioavailable 25-hydroxyvitamin D are similar to whites due to the presence of a related hormone marker that is not customarily measured (Powe et al. About 16 percent of our observations were cases where children either took the test on the same or following day as the time diary was recorded, while 80 percent were lagged by less than 10 days. Frederick, Carl B., Kaisa Snellman, and Robert D. Putnam. /Length 21 0 R Eyles, D. W., F. Feron, X. Cui, J. P. Kesby, L. H. Harms, P. Ko, J. J. McGrath, and T. H. J. Burne. WebRecreation as an essential landuse Due to competing demands for land, there is extreme Pressure for land. Among the negative impacts observed were decreased species diversity; decreased survival, reproduction, or abundance; and behavioral or physiological /Length 11 0 R Using the weather as an instrument, as we have described, also has its pitfalls and potential biases. For instance, we do not capture the qualitative details of what kinds of physical, sedentary, and so on, behavior children are engaging in. This suggests that even halving the time spent engaging in sedentary behavior or consuming electronic media could manifest in significant math gains. 20 0 obj ;woW5un57t\wzj#1'Rke7loqS;mam*I_]z+=[n&]?HS;mam+/vlwOs>Q>K/vlwOs>Q>K/vlwOs>Q>K+RI$I$_ In addition to differences in cognitive performance, some cross-sectional and RCT studies also find physical, structural differences in brain integrity between more and less fit children (e.g., white or gray matter volume) (Erickson, Hillman, and Kramer 2015). Extremes in sunlight compared to national average (average daily sunlight values in kilojoules/m2, 19972008), Geographic variation in average sunlight (kilojoules/m2), 19972008. We present imputed results alongside our main estimates, as well as conventional OLS and FE specifications. >> Our imputed specifications in table 1 produce substantively similar estimates, which suggest that data missingness is not systematically biasing our core results. Learn more about the negative effects of recreation. The effects of recreation on our environment are numerous. Sports as well as outdoor activities can significantly alter the Earth's natural surroundings and cause disruption to wildlife. In particular, there are three common ways that recreational activities affect the environment. (2005) found that time outdoors moderates the relationship between weather and affective and cognitive outcomes, which suggests that behavior (i.e., going outside, rather than general abstract satisfaction with positive weather conditions) is the linchpin in the causal process. Noelke, Clemens, Mark McGovern, Daniel J. Corsi, Marcia P. Jiminez, Ari Stern, Ian Sue Wing, and Lisa Berkman. We restricted the 2014 CDS descriptive estimates to children above 10 so they are comparable in age to the 2007 wave (when the youngest children in our sample were about 10 years old). Before National Library of Medicine and transmitted securely. We also find substantial effect sizes for television and gaming, with each additional hour resulting in a loss of 38 and 63 percent of a standard deviation, respectively. 2015). Taken together, these findings suggest that the impact of the weather on mood is rather ambiguous, and that sunlight seems to affect outcomes chiefly through the act of being in- or outdoorsthat is, through activity and behavior. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (, Racialization and Reproduction: Asian Immigrants and Californias Twentieth-Century Eugenic Sterilization Program, Review of Prisons and Health in the Age of Mass Incarceration, Review of: Making Gender Salient: From Gender Quota Laws to Policy, Review of Why Baby Boomers Turned from Religion: Shaping Belief and Belonging, 19452021, Review of Liberty Road: Black Middle-Class Suburbs and the Battle Between Civil Rights and Neoliberalism, Childhood Inequality, Time Use, and Cognitive Growth, Cognition: Practical Significance and Empirical Measurement, Supplementary material is available at Social Forces online, http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/, Receive exclusive offers and updates from Oxford Academic, Copyright 2023 University of North Carolina Chapel Hill. %PDF-1.2 Outdoor recreation in protected areas negatively impacts wildlife We also include a five-year rolling average of real family income preceding the measurement year, and the poverty rate of the home census tract as a proxy for neighborhood conditions. McKnight, P. E., K. M. McKnight, S. Sidani, and A. J. Figueredo. The Life Satisfaction Index - Z and the Meaningful Activity Participation Assessment were analyzed to examine older adults' life satisfaction and frequency of active or passive activities. Meyer, Christelle, Vincenzo Muto, Mathieu Jaspar, Caroline Kuss, Erik Lambot, Sarah L. Chellappa, Christian Degueldre, Evelyne Balteau, Andr Luxen, Benita Middleton, Simon N. Archer, Fabienne Collette, Derk-Jan Dijk, Pierre Maquet, and Gilles Vandewalle. We control for the cumulative gains realized by the progression of the school year by including a time in school variable backdated to the day after Labor Day (largely but not universally coincident with the start of the school year in the United States) from the date of the WJ-R test in each CDS wave. Another consideration is why we did not see similar effects using verbal outcomes (see online appendix table S2 for broad reading results). Disclaimer. According to some studies, the Our results also have implications for achievement gaps documented in the social science literature. * p < .05 ** p < .01 *** p < .001 (two-tailed tests). Cutaneous exposure to ultraviolet light has long been recognized as degrading folic acidor B9, an essential vitamin that acts as a precursor to DNA methylationin both clinical trials and in vivo (Off et al. The .gov means its official. Results: The results showed that participation in passive leisure activities, such reading, talking on the telephone and watching TV/listening to the radio, is more frequent among older adults (P = 0.000). Strategies that decrease sedentary time and promote physical activity in its place may have a particularly robust impact on confronting these pernicious inequalities of achievement. On the other hand, gaps in screen time largely persisted or grew. Meta-analyses of research on the effects of acute exercise intervention suggest a positive effect on executive functioning (i.e., skills that allow for planning, multitasking, self-control, etc. Please enable it to take advantage of the complete set of features! Ludyga, Sebastian, Markus Gerber, Serge Brand, Edith Holsboer-Trachsler, and Uwe Phse. Extrapolating from effect sizes and average time use/math scores across waves, back-of-the-envelope calculations suggest that differences in behavior may account for nontrivial proportions of the black/white and caregiver college/no college gaps in assessment.

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